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THE CIRCLE OF THE MECHANICAL ARTS;
CONTAINING PRACTICAL TREATISES ON THE VARIOUS
MANUAL ARTS, TRADES, AND MANUFACTURES.
BY THOMAS MARTIN, CIVIL ENGINEER,
ASSISTED BY EMINENT PROFESSIONAL MECHANICS AND
MANUFACTURERS.
3(lluotratea bp numerous
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR RICHARD REES, 62, PALL MALL;
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNERj AND SHERWOOD, NEELEY, AND JONES, PATERNOSTER-ROW;
AND W. CURTIS, PLYMOUTH.
1813.
CUTLERY.
ТHE manufacture of edged tools is one of the first
arts among men in every state of society. Workmen in
general are aware of the necessity that the instruments
of their respective trades should be made to possess the
qualities adapted to the operations by which they gain
their subsistence : and, among the various subdivisions
of labour, there is no material upon which the skill of
mechanics is more exercised than steel. The makers
of files, of chisels, of planes, and saws, and the infinite
variety of knives, all occupy departments separate from
each other, and possess their respective degrees of celebrity,
which are grounded on their knowledge of the
peculiar kinds of steel, as well as the methods of working
them, which are best adapted to the intended ope-
ratkms. Many of these methods are kept secret ; but
there are some manufacturers who have no reserve with
regard to the manipulations of their art, and have the
spirit to assert their claims to public encouragement
upon the fair ground of the address and integrity with
which they conduct their labours. This article will be
much indebted to the communications of Mr. Stodart,
inserted in some of our periodical publications, and to
a very able article on the subject in the New Cyclopedia.
Though cutlery, in the general sense, comprises all
those articles denominated edge-tools, it is more particularly
confined to the manufacture of knives, forks,
scissars, pen-knives, razors, and swords. Damascus
was anciently famed for its razors and swords. The
latter are said to possess the advantages of flexibility,
elasticity and hardness. Those articles of cutlery which
do not require a fine polish, and are of low price, are
made from blistered STEEL (whichsee). Those articles
which require the edge to possess great tenacity, and
at the same time superior hardness is not required, are
made from sheer steel. The finer kinds of cutlery are
made from steel which has been in a state of fusion,
and which is termed cast-steel, no other kinds being
susceptible of a fine polish. Table knives are mostly
made of sheer-steel, the tang and shoulder being of
iron, the blade being attached by giving them a welding
heat. The knives after forging are hardened by heating
them red hot, and plunging them into water ; they are
afterwards heated over the fire till they become blue and
then ground. The handles of table-knives are made of
ivory, horn, bone, stag-horn, and wood, into which the
blades are cemented with resin and pulverized brick.
Forks are made almost altogether, by the aid of the
stamp and appropriate dies. The prongs only are hardened and tempered. Razors are made of cast-steel, the edge of a razor requiring the combined advantages of great hardness and tenacity. After the razor blade is forged, it is hardened by gradually heating it to a bright red heat and plunging it into cold water. It is tempered by heating it afterwards till a brightened part appears of a straw colour. It would be more equally effected by sand, or what is still better in hot oil, or fusible mixture, consisting of eight parts of bismuth, five of lead, and three of tin ; a thermometer being placed in the liquid at the time the razors are immersed, for the purpose of indicating the proper temperature, which is about 500 of Fahrenheit. After the razor ha* been ground into its proper shape, it is finished by polishing. The glazor is formed of wood, faced with an alloy of lead and tin ; after its face is turned to the proper form and size it is filled with notches which are filled up with emery and tallow. This instrument gives the razor a smooth and uniform surface ¡nul u line edge. The polisher consists of a piece of circular wood running upon an axis, like that of the stone or the glazor. It is coated with leather, having its surface covered with crocus marl is. The handles of high priced razors are made of ivory and tortoise shell, but in general they are of polished horn, which are preferred as well ou account of their cheapness as their durability. The bora is cut into pieces and placed between two dies, having a recess of the shape of the handle. By this process the horn admits of a considerable extension ; if the hora is not previously black, the handles are dyed black by means of logwood and green vitriol. The clear horn handles are sometimes stained so -as to imitate the tortoise-shell : this is effected by laying upon the handle a composition of three parts of potash, one of minium, ten of quick-lime, and as much water as will make the whole into a pulpy mass. Those parts of the handle requiring darker shades, are covered thicker than the other. After this substance is laid upon the handles, they are placed before the fire the time requisite for giving the proper effect. The manufacture of penknives is divided into three departments ; the first is the forging of the blades, the spring, and the iron scales ; the second, the grinding and polishing of the blades ; and the third, the handling, which consists in fitting up all the parts, and finishing the knife. The blades are made of the best cast steel, and hardened and tempered to about the same degree with that of razors. In grinding they are made a little more concave on one side than the other, in other respects they are treated in a similar
way
CUTLERY. 961
way to razors. The handles are covered with horn,
ivory, and sometimes wood ; but the most durable are
those of stag-horn. The general fault in peu-knives is
that of being too soft. The temper ought to be not
higher than a straw colour, as it seldom happens that
a pen-knife is so hard as to snap on the edge. The
beauty and elegance of polished steel is not displayed to
more advantage than in the manufacture of the finer
kinds of scissars. The steel employed for the more
valuable scissars should be cast steel of the choices
qualities; it must possess hardness and uniformity о
texture for the sake of assuming a fine polish, great tenacity
when 1 к>t for the purpose of forming the bow о
Hug of the scissar, which requires to be extended from
a solid piece having a hole previously punched through
it. It ought abo to be very tenacious when cold, to al
low that delicacy of form observed in those scissar
termed ladies' scissars. After the scissars are forget
as near to the same size as the eye of the workman caÃ
ascertain, they are paired. The bows and some othe
parts are filed to their intended form : the blades are
also roughly ground, and the two sides properly ad
justed to each other, after being bound together with «
ire and hardened up to the bows. They are afterwards
heated till they become of a purple colour
vliich indicates their proper temper. Almost all the
remaining part of the work is performed at the grinding
mill, with the stone, the lap, the polisher, and the
brush ; the latter is used to polish those parts which havi
been filed, and which the lap and (he polisher canno
touch. Previously to screwiug the scisears together for
the last time, they are rubbed over with the powder o;
quick lime, and afterwards wiped clean with a skin o:
soft sheep leather. The quick-lime absorbs the moisture
from the surface, to which the rusting of steel is
justly attributed. Scissars are sometimes beautifully
ornamented by blueing and gilding, and also with studs
of gold or polished steel. The very large scissars are
partly of iron and partly of steel, the shanks and bows
being of the former. These, as well as those all ol
steel, which are not hardened all over, cannot be polished :
an inferior sort of lustre, however, is given to
them by means of a burnish of hardened polished steel, Ӣ
which is very easily distinguished from the real polish by
the irregularity of the surface. Having entered into
tbese particulars relating to the manufacture of the
usual articles found in cutlers' shops, we shall speak of
some of the more general principles that are applicable
to the finer articles of cutlery.
Cutlers do not use any coating to their work at the
hardening heat as the file cutters do ; and indeed it
seems evidently unnecessary when the article is intended
to be tempered and ground. The best rule is to harden as
little as possible above the state intended to be produced
by tempering. Work which has been overheated has a
crumbly edge, and will not afford the wire hereafter to
by day-light. No advantage is obtained from the use be described. The proper heat is a cherry red visible
of salt in the water, or cooling that fluid, or from using mercury instead of water, but it may be remarked, that questions respecting the fluid are, properly speaking, applicable only to files, gravers, and such toóle 43 are intended to be left at the extreme of hardness. Yet though M r. Stodart does not seem to attach much va* lue to peculiarities in the process of hardening, he mentions it as the observation and practice of one of his workmen, that the charcoal fire should be made up with shavings of leather: and upon being asked what good he supposed the leather could do, this workman replied, that he could take upon him to say, that he never had a razor crack in the hardening since he had used this method, though it was a very common accident before. It appears from the consideration of other facts, that this process is likely to prove advantageous. When brittle substances crack in cooling, it always happens from the outside contracting and becoming too small to contain the interior parts. But it is known, that hard steel occupies more space than when soft, and it may easily be inferred, that the nearer the steel approaches to the state of iron the less will be this increase of dimensions. If, then, we suppose a razor,, or any other piece of steel, to be heated in an open fire with a current of air passing through it, the external part will, by the loss of carbon become less steely than before ; and when the whole piece comes to be hardened, the ineide will be too large for the external part, which will probably crack. But if the piece of steel be wrapped up in the cementing mixture, or if the fire itself contain animal coal, aud is put together so a* to operate in the manner of that mixture, the external part, instead of being degraded by this heat, will be more carbonated than the internal part, in consequence of which it will be so far from splitting or bursting during its cooling, that it will be acted upon in a contrary direction, tending to render it more dense and solid. One of the greatest difficulties in hardening steel works of any considerable extent, more especially such articles as are formed of thin plates, or have a variety of üirts of different sizes, consists in the apparent imprac- icability of heating the thicker parts before the slighter are burned away ; besides which, even for a piece of uniform figure, it is no easy matter to make up a fire which shall give a speedy heat and be nearly of the ame intensity throughout. " This difficulty," says Mr. Micholson, " formed a very considerable impediment to nj success in a course of delicate steel work, in which . was engaged about seven years ago ; but after various «successful experiments, I succeeded in removing it by ”¢Ðº; use of a bath of melted lead, which for very justi- able reasons has been kept a secret till now. Pure ead, that is to say, lead containing little or no tin, is :,nited to a moderate redness aud then well stirred. uto this the piece is plunged for a few seconds ; that to say, until when brought near the surface that part oes not appear less luminous than the rest. The piece then speedily stirred about in the bath, suddenly drawn out and plunged into a large mass of water. In this manner a plate of steel may be hardened so as to
3X be
CUTLERY.
be perfectly brittle, and yet continue so sound as to I
ring like a bell ; an effect which I never could produce
in any other way. Mr. Stodart has lately made trial of j
this method, and considers it to be a great acquisition ;
to the art, as in fact I found it." The letting down, or ,
tempering of hard steel, is considered as absolutely ne-
eessary for the production of a fine and durable edge. !
It has been usual to do this by heating the hardened
steel till its bright surface exhibits some known colour
by oxidation. The first is a very faint straw colour,
becoming deeper and deeper by increase of heat to a
fine deep golden yellow, which changes irregularly to a
purple, then to an uniform blue, succeeded by white
and several successive faint repetitious of these series.
It is well known, that the hardest state of tempered
instruments, such as razors and surgeons' instruments,
is indicated by this straw colour ; that a deeper colour j
is required for leather-cutters' knives and other tools
that require the edge to be turned on one side ; that
the blue which indicates a good temper for springs is
almost too soft for any cutting instrument, except saws
and such tools as are sharpened with a file, and that the
lower states of hardness are not at all adapted to this
use. But it is of considerable importance that the letting
down or tempering, as well as the hardening,
should be effected by heat equally applied, and that the
temperatures, especially at the lower heats, where
greater hardness is to be left, should be more precisely
ascertained than can be done by the different shades of
oxidation. Mr. Hartley first practised the method of
immersing hard steel in heated oil, or the fusible compound
of lead five parts, tin three, and bismuth eight.
The temperature of either of these fluids may be ascertained
in the usual manner, when it does not exceed
the point at which mercury boils : and by this contrivance
the same advantages are obtained in lowering the
temperature of an whole instrument, or any number of
them at once, as have already been stated in favour of
my method of hardening. Oil is preferable to the
fusible mixture for several reasons. It is cheaper;
it admits of the work being seen during the immersion
by reason of its transparency ; and there is no
occasion for any contrivance to prevent the work from
floating.
Mr. Nicholson requested Mr. Stodart to favour 'him Ӣ
with an account of the temperatures at which the several
colours make their appearance upon hardened steel ;
in compliance with which he made a series of experiments
upon surgeons' needles hardened, highly polished,
and exposed to a gradual heat while floating at the surface
of the fusible mixture. The appearances are as
follow : " No. 1. taken out at 430* of Fahrenheit. This
temperature leaves the steel in the most excellent state
for razors and scalpels. The tarnish, or faint yellowish
tinge it produces is too evanescent to be observed without
comparison with another piece of polished steel.
Instruments in this state retain their edge much longer
than those upon which the actual straw colour has been
brought, as is the common practice. Mr. S. informs me (says Mr. Nicholson) that 430" is the lowest tem- »rr.iUue for letting down, and that the lower degrees will not afford a firm edge. No. 2, at 440°, and 3 at 450°. These needles differ so little in their appearance тот No. 1, that it is not easy to arrange them with certainty when misplaced. No. 4 has the evident tinge which workmen call pale straw colour. It was taken out at 460°, and has the usual temper of pen-knives, razors, and other fine edge tools. It is much softer than No. 1, as Mr. Stodart assures me, and this difference exhibits a valuable proof of the advantages of this method of tempering. Nos. 2, fi, 7 and 8, exhibit successive deeper shades of colour, having been respectively taken out at the temperatures 470°, 480", 49O°, and 500°. The last is of a bright brownish metallic yellow, very slightly inclining to purple. No. 9 obtained an uniform deep blue at the temperature of 580°. The intermediate shades produced on steel by heats- between 500" and 580° are yellow, brown, red, and~ purple, which are exhibited irregularly on different parts- of the surface. As I had before seen this irregularity,, particularly on the surface of a razor of Wootz, and had found in my own experience, that the colours on . different kinds of steel do not correspond with like degrees' of temper, and probably of temperature ¡in their production, I was desirous that some experiments might be made upon it by the same skilful artist. Four beautifully polished blades were therefore exposed to heat on the fusible metal. The first was taken up when it had acquired the fine yellow, or uniform deep straw colour. The second remained on the mixture tiH the part nearest the stem had become purplish, at which period a number of small round spots of a purplish colour appeared in the clear yellow of the blade. The third was left till the thicker parts of the blade were of a deep ruddy purple, but the concave face still continued yellow. This also acquired spots like the other, and a slight cloudiness. These three blades were of cast steel ; the fourth, which was made out of a piece called styrian steel, was left upon the mixture till the red tinge had pervaded almost the whole of its concave face. Two or three spots appeared upon this blade, but the greater part of its surface was variegated with blue clouds, disposed in such a manner as to produce' those waving lines which. in Damascus steel are called the water. Two results are more immediately suggested by these facts ; first, that the irregular production of a deep colour upon the surface of brightened steel, may serve to indicate the want of uniformity in its composition ; and secondly, that the deep colour being observed to come on first at the thickest parts, Mr. Stodart was disposed to think, that its more speedy appearance was owing to those parts not having been hardened. Suppose our cutting instrument to be forged, hardened, and let down or tempered. It re- ' mains to be ground, polished, and set. The grinding of fine cutlery is performed upon a grind-stone of a fine close grit, called a Bilson grind-stone, and sold at the tool shops in -London at a moderate price. The '
cutlers
CUTLERY.
cutlers use water, and do not seem to know any thing
of the method by tallow. The face of the work is
rendered finer by subsequent grinding upon mahogany
cylinders, with emery of different fineness, or upon
cylinders faced with hard pewter, called laps, which are
preferable to those with a wooden face. The last polish
is given upon a cylinder faced with buff leather, to
which crocus, or the red oxide of iron is applied with
water. - This last operation is attended with considerable
danger of heating the work, and almost instantly
reducing its temper along the thin edge, which at the
same time acquires the colours of oxidation. The setting
now remains to be performed, which is a work of
much delicacy and skill : so much so, indeed, that Mr.
Stodart says, he cannot produce the most exquisite and
perfect edge if interrupted by conversation, or even by
noises in the street. The tool is first whetted upon a
hone with oil, by rubbing it backwards and forwards.
In all the processes of grinding or wearing down the
edge, but more especially in the setting, the artist appears
to prefer that stroke which leads the edge according
to the action of cutting, instead of making the back
run first along the stone. This proceeding is very
judicious ; for if there be any lump or particle of stone
or other substance lying upon the face of the grinder,
and the back of the tool be first run over it, it will
proceed beneath the edge and lift it up, at the same
time producing a notch. But on the other hand, if
the edge be made to move foremost and meet such
particle, it will slide beneath it and suffer no injury.
Another condition in whetting is, that the hand should
not bear heavy ; because it is evident, that the same
stone must produce a more uniform edge if the steel be
wore away by many, than by few strokes. It is also
of essential importance that the hone itself should be of
a fine texture, or that its silicious particles should be
very minute.
The grind-stone leaves a ragged edge, which it is
the first effect of whetting to reduce so thin that it may
be bended backwards and forwards. This flexible part
is called the wire, and if the whetting were to be continued
too long it would break off in pieces without
regularity, leaving a finer though still very imperfect
edge, and tending to produce accident while lying on
the face of the stone. The wire is taken off by raising
the face of the knife to an angle of about .00 degrees
vith the surface of the stone, and giving a light stroke
edge foremost alternately towards, each end of the
stone. These strokes produce an edge, tke faces of
which are inclined to each other in an angle of about
10O degrees, and to which the wire is so slightly adherent
that it may often be taken away entire, and is
easily removed by lightly drawing the edge along the
finger nail. The edge thus cleared, is generally very
even : but it is too thick, and must again be reduced by Ӣ
whetting. A finer wire is by tins means produced,
which will require to be again taken off, if for
vant of judgment or delicacy of hand, the artist should
have carried it too far. But we will suppose the obtuse edge to be very even, and the second wire to be scarcely perceptible. In this case the last edge will be very acute, but neither so even nor so strong as to be durably useful. The finish is given by two or more alternate light strokes with the edge slanting foremost, and the blade of the knife raised, so that its plane forms an angle of about 28 degrees with the face of the stone. This is the angle which by careful observation and measurement, I find Mr. Stodart habitually uses for the finest surgeons' instruments, and which he considers as the best for razors, and other keen cutting tools. The angle of edge is therefore about 56 degrees. The ' excellence and uniformity of a fine edge may be ascertained, by its mode of operation when lightly drawn along the surface of the skin, or leather, or any organized soft substance. Lancets are tried by suffering the point to drop gently through a piece of thin soft leather. If the edge be exquisite, it will not only pass with facility, but there will not be the least noise produced, any more than if it had dropped into water. This kind of edge cannot be produced, but by performing the last. two or more strokes on the green hone. The operation of strapping is similar to that of grinding or whetting, and is performed by means of the angular particle of fine crocus, or other material bedded in the face of the strap. It requires, less skill than the operation of setting, and is very apt, from the elasticity of the strap, to enlarge the angle of the edge or round it too much. We shall now, as a conclusion to the article, give an account of a patent granted to Mr. Arnold Wilde of Sheffield, for making all kinds of plane-irons, scythes, sickles, drawing-knives, and other edge-tools from a preparation of cast steel and iron united and incorporated by means of fire. This invention is thus described, " Take a mould of cast iron, or other fit material, of л dimension that will best suit the size of the article intended to be manufactured ; then take a piece of wrought iron and prepare it by heating in the fire and hammering it, or in any other manner, to the size you want ; then fix the iron in the mould, leaving a sufficient vacancy to receive the cast steel in a fluid state. In such a direction as that, when die cast steel is poured into the mould, the iron may be either in the middle or the centre of the cast steel, or on one or both sides of the cast steel, or in such other direction as may best suit the purpose for which the iron and cast steef when incorporated shall be wanted. Then put the crucible .or pot into the furnace or fire till the steel becomes liquid. When you suppose the steel to be nearly in a fluid state, take your piece of iron which you intend to incorporate with the cast steel, put it into the fire and heat it to what is usually called a welding heat ; then take the iron out of the fire, clear it from any scale of dirt, and fix it in the mould in the like direction you had before fitted it ; take care that your steel be now in a fluid state, and immediately on your taking the iron out of the fire, take the crucible or pot containing the melted steel from the furnace or fire, and immediately after the iron thus heated shall be fitted in
the
fi64 DYEING.
the mould pour or turn the fluid steel into the space or
vacancy left in the mould to receive the same, which Ӣ
will incorporate with the iron, and become one eolid
mass or body of cast steel and iron united. To make
all sorts of plane irons, scythes, sickles, drawing knives,
hay knives, and all other kind« of edge tools of cast iron
and steel, united as herein before mentioned, forge,
roll, slit, or tilt in such a way as is proper for any or
either of the articles intended to be manufactured; then
the article may be made in the usual manner, or by
such other mode as a workman may judge most convenient.
To harden Sword-blades.””Sword-blades are to be
made tough, so as not to snap or break in pushing
against any thing capable of resistance ; they must also
be of a keen edge, for which purpose they must all
along the middle be hardened with oil and butter, to
make them tough, and the edges with such things as
shall be prescribed hereafter for hardening edged instalments.
This work requires not a little care 'in the
practice. ' ”¢ ' How to imitate the Damascan Blades.””This may be done to such perfection that they cannot be distinguished from the real Damascan blades. First polish your blade in the best manner, and finish it by rubbing with floor of chalk ; then take chalk mixed with water, and rub it with your ringer well together on your hand ; with this touch the polished blade, and make spots at pleasure, and set them to dry before the sun, or a fire ; then take water in which tartar has been dissolved, and wet your blade all over therewith, and those places that are left clear from chalk will change to. a black colour ; a little after, wash all olà with clear water, and the places where the chalk has been will be bright. Horn the Damascan Blades are hardened.””The Turks take fresh goat's blood, and after they have made their blades red hot, they quench them therein ; this they repeat nine times running, which, it is said, makes their blades so hard as to cut iron.
). No one gave me a hard time when I got started, I ought to return the favor. The issue of PC gear is something that pertains to me, it's important to me what my gear is.
